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互联网上的纯粹利他行为

November 30th, 2006

摘要:互联网的大规模普及给我们带来了很多新事物,新观念,这些新事物和新观念一方面深化了我们对人类行为和思想的认识,另一方面反过来也深刻影响着我们的行为和思想。本文以维基百科为线索,以纯粹利他行为为突破口,在互联网和纯粹利他行为这个层面上进行探讨,论述纯粹利他行为的成因及影响,本质上试图反映人类的技术进步与人类观念和行为之间的作用与反作用。
关键词:互联网 维基百科 纯粹利他行为

维基百科,wikipedia,一部人人皆可编辑的网上百科全书,自2001115日在美国创立至今,世界各地超过288万名注册用户和多得多的未注册用户已用超过210种语言写下超过350万则词条[1],位列全球第14大网站[2]。维基人如此孜孜不倦,每天贡献超过6万次编辑,却没有分文可取,甚至刻意匿名,甚至他们的贡献也随时会被后人改写、覆盖,到底是什么在驱动着这一切? 这一切对我们又意味着什么?

一、互联网上的纯粹利他行为

维基人的这种行为,是一种典型的利他行为。Bar-Ta[3]认为,以利他动机为基础的利他主义行为具有以下特点:(1)必须对他人有利;(2)必须是自愿的;(3)行为必须是有意识且有明确目的;(4)所获得利益必须是行为本身;(5)不期望有任何精神和物质的奖赏。Wilson[4 ]进而把利他主义分为两种:无条件的利他主义( 纯粹利他主义)和有条件利他主义(互惠利他主义)。无条件利他者不求任何回报,不受社会奖励和惩罚的影响,表现出无私的忘我。而有条件利他主义的实质则是自私的“利他者”,其典型反映就是互惠互利,社会中的远亲和不相干的个体交往,通过社会契约达到互利互惠,这种利他主义行为完全是有意识的。(因为互联网上基本上不存在亲缘利他,所以本文不予讨论,另外,本文讨论的纯粹利他主义行为所谓“不求任何回报”并不包括利他者获得的心理满足感)。

 

对照以上两位学者的定义,我们可以发现,因为维基百科的绝大多数条目都是由未注册的用户贡献的[5],除了留下一个IP地址,他们什么也没留下,也没有分文可取,所以可以把他们的行为定义为纯粹利他主义行为(因为没有留下可供识别的身份信息,所以也不满足互惠利他主义对于迭演博弈的必要条件[6])。

除了维基百科,互联网上类似的纯粹利他主义行为不胜枚举。比如1BBS和论坛,有很多热心网友花费时间和精力解答问题,提供信息,宣传与发动社会救助,提供精神安慰或道义支持,版主等管理员还义务花费大量时间和精力承担起繁重的管理工作;2FTPBT,耗费计算机及电力提供资源共享;3Open Source[7],很多技术高手(意味着很大的机会成本)花费大量时间和精力为开源项目添砖加瓦。

当然,以上列举的具体行为中,有一些可能超出纯粹利他的定义,甚至不再属于利他的范畴。比如一些论坛实行的积分制度实际上给了行为人一定的声誉和地位的补偿;一些新手在技术论坛上表现积极是为了留下个好印象,便于日后能获得他人的帮助(多局博弈的互惠利他,本质上还是利己的);随着网上活动的增多,人们开始关注自己的网上身份、形象的人格化,而帮助他人明显有助于此。等等。但是问题在于,在剔除这些行为后,我们仍能观察到相当数量的纯粹利他主义行为,本文将以维基百科为典型(类似于韦伯的“理想型”)来论述这些行为。

 

二、对纯粹利他行为的各种解释

1、经济学(隐含着生物学)的视角
经济学的“经济人”假设事实上是把利他主义排除在外的。20世纪20年代以后,经济人假设逐步被理性人假设取代,根据现代经济学的解释,效用是偏好的函数,用偏好定义理性,只需满足完备性和传递性两条假定(Mas-ColellWhinston & Green1995)。而所谓理性人,简而言之就是约束条件下最大化自身偏好的人。因此,把利他作为人的偏好,以利他行为这个偏好得到满足的程度作为效用来研究,从而把利他主义行为纳入了经济学研究的视角。叶航等[8]根据桑塔费学派的一个最新实验,并通过构建一个利他行为演化均衡模型,得出纯粹利他行为也是一种进化稳定策略(ESS),从而推翻了主流生物学家“生物界只存在亲缘利他和互惠利他”的论断,把利他偏好内生化,得出这样的结论:“超越囚徒困境中个体理性的局限,谋求合作和合作剩余,可能是我们人类行为、人类心智与人类社会包括人类文化与人类制度共生演化的最终原因。建立一个更完善、更有效率的合作秩序,也许是我们这个物种在生存竞争中的最大优势。在人类漫长的演化历史中,最初的合作秩序是通过自然选择建立的,即自然选择的压力迫使人类进化出有利于合作的偏好”。

在这里,叶航等构建利他行为演化均衡模型时,认为“一个利他者的生存适应性不仅取决于他与自私者的个别交往,而且还取决于他与其他利他者的交往,由于这些交往更容易达成合作从而使双方享受到合作剩余,只要这个剩余足够大,就能弥补利他者损失的进化优势”。事实上这里还是把利他行为的动机作为一种求得合作剩余的策略,很难说这是一种纯粹利他行为,因为我们定义的利他是动机而不是结果。(事实上,齐良书[9]就对叶航等从经济学角度提出了批评,但他还是认为利他行为之所以存在,并成为一种道德,使得个体产生“必须如此行动,才能安心、满足”的感觉,乃是因为利他行为有利于我们的生存之故。为什么纯粹利他行为有利于我们的生存,他并没有给出解释。)

以维基百科为例,仅凭任何一个个体的一己之力,绝无可能达成构建一部百科全书这样的梦想。所有人都明白这一点,这时候合作就成为最优的策略。

2、哲学的视角

王海明[10]认为,一个人之所以能够无私利他(这里的无私利他即纯粹利他),是因为他有两种感情:道德感情与非道德感情。所谓道德感情,也就是每个人都具有的做一个好人、道德的人、高尚的人的道德需要和道德愿望。对于这种道德感情,康德名之为“对道德法则的敬重心”,儒家和基督教则名之为“成圣成贤之心”。确实,这种感情能够引发无私利人的行为:一个人之所以无私利人,是因为他有完善自我品德之心,他要完善自我道德人格,满足自己的道德需要、道德感情。

而引发无私利人行为的非道德感情,则是人人皆有的爱人之心。爱人之心是人的非道德感情,它是人与动物所共有的、不学而能、不经道德教化便可以出现的自然感情,因而是源于个人的非道德需要的感情。利他主义发现,这种感情是引发无私利人行为的另一动因:一个人之所以无私利人,是因为他有爱人之心— 一方面他有报恩心,他懂得他的个人利益是社会和他人给的;另一方面是因为他有同情心,他能以己推人。这就是为什么儒家用“爱人”来界说仁;墨家用“爱人利人”来界说“兼”;基督教则干脆把无私利人叫做“爱”。这就是为什么孔子认为“己所欲施于人、己所不欲勿施于人”,即推己及人、以同情心待人的“忠恕”之道,是达到无私利人的仁境界之方法。这也就是为什么,基督教将“己所欲施于人、己所不欲勿施于人”奉为“黄金律”。

以维基百科为例,道德感情在这里源于维基百科的“有用性”,也就是对自己和他人的有价值性,为这个价值作贡献于人有用,因而于己心安,满足了自己的道德情感需求。报恩心在这里就是“人人为我,我为人人”,同情心就是设想他人也像自己一样需要这样一个百科全书(己所欲,施于人)。

3、其他解释
其他对利他行为的解释包括移情理论、社会道德准则理论、自我归因理论、社会道德敏感性理论、个性品质理论,因为一方面这些理论并非专门针对纯粹利他行为的研究,另一方

跟上述经济学的视角和哲学的视角多有重叠,本文不再赘述,有兴趣的请详看注释3一文。

 

三、什么在影响着纯粹利他行为?

一个人在怎样的情境下会有利他行为?他的利他行为受哪些因素的影响?根据观察,以维基百科为例,如果以下条件越充分,那么人们的利他行为将会显著增强:1、价值观认同。维基百科的目的类似2000年前的亚历山大图书馆,宗旨是将全世界的知识收集于一个屋顶下。这样崇高的目的激励着与之有相同价值观的人为之作贡献。2、手段公正。维基百科对每个贡献者不偏不倚,任何人都有权利修改任何条目。同时每个条目也得到公平对待,没有重要性的区分。3、不被出卖。维基百科是非盈利组织,没有广告,版权开放,这意味着你的贡献不会被任何个人和组织占为私有。4、社群协同,而非孤立。有一群志同道合,见多识广的人协同工作,人们可以相互讨论交流。

 

四、利他行为有何影响?

利他行为,包括纯粹利他行为,对他人和我们自身的影响是多方面的。1、帮助了他人。别人将从你的贡献中受益。2、多人协作,使公益性的宏大项目成为可能。3、滋生了他人的懒惰,客观上剥夺了他人在劳动中学习的机会,从而降低了他的竞争力。4、高尚的道德行为使他人感到压力。当然,另一方面,高尚的道德行为也会给他人树立学习的榜样。5、己所欲,未必可施于人。甲之美味,乙之毒药,主观上的利他可能会导致客观上的“害他”。

 

五、结论

人类科学技术的发展,使互联网的大规模普及成为可能。有学者认为,互联网融会了传统媒介的所有传播特点,同时又具有许多独特性,诸如信息的可储存和再现性、多方同时可及性、匿名性、开放性等等[11]。这些独特性减少了交易成本,使得人们的纯粹利他主义行为动机被放大,并有机会付诸实践(科学技术使人类的美德成为可能);另一方面,正因为人类固有的纯粹利他行为这样的美德,维基百科这样的新事物才能得以实现(人类美德使科学技术得到发展);第三方面,被放大并得到实践的人类美德将进一步影响着人类自身的观念和行为,超越囚徒困境中个体理性的局限将真正成为可能。


参考文献
1、 维基百科统计 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Statistics

2、 alexa.com,以访问人次计,http://www.alexa.com
3、 D. Altruistic motivationJ. Humboldt Journal of Social Relation198613):3 - 14.,转引自王雁飞,朱瑜:利他主义行为发展的理论研究述评[J],华南理工大学学报(社会科学版),2003(12):38
4、 WilsonE. O. SociologyThe New SynthesisM. CambridgeMassHarvard University Press1976. 转引自王雁飞,朱瑜:利他主义行为发展的理论研究述评[J],华南理工大学学报(社会科学版),2003(12):37-38
5、 Aaron SwartzRaw Thought: Who Writes Wikipedia?[A]
http://www.aaronsw.com/weblog/whowriteswikipedia
6、 刘鹤玲:互惠利他主义的博弈论模型及其形而上学预设,自然辩证法通讯[J],1999(6):12
7、 David Hinds: Critical Mass Behavior and Transaction Costs in Open Source and Open Content Projects[A]
8、 叶航、汪丁丁、罗卫东:作为内生偏好的利他行为及其经济学意义,经济研究[J]20058

9、 齐良书:利他行为及其经济学意义,经济评论[J]20063

10、 王海明,利他主义新探,齐鲁学刊[J]20045):77-78

11、 刘瑛,杨伯溆,互联网与虚拟社区,社会学研究[J]20035):1

AbstractThe popularization of Internet brings a lot of new phenomena and new notions, Wikipedia is such a representative phenomena and notion, whose success strongly based by human beings’ altruism, we defined this altruism as a kind of pure altruism. Through the research of what is Wikipedia and the cause/influence of pure altruism, we can learn the Internet , virtual community and human beings better.

KeywordsInternet, wikipedia, pure altruism


Firefox 2.0正式发布

October 25th, 2006

10月23日消息 MOZZARELLA基金已宣布最新版Firefox浏览器将自本周二开始提供下载。

据theinquirer网站报道,Firefox 2.0的最后一个测试版本上周进行了测试,它的稳定性表明该款浏览器的商业发布时机已经成熟。微软上周发布其下一代浏览器IE7对Firefox 2.0推出的影响并不大。

这款免费浏览器大小为5MB,支持39种语言,适用于Windows、Mac和LiNU电脑,用户届时可以在getfirefox.com网站上进行下载。

Firefox的这个版本历经了将近2年的开发,它更新的内容包括反钓鱼技术、标签浏览功能、发生系统崩溃时浏览页面恢复功能、拼写检查功能及内嵌的网络搜索功能等。

 

根据我本人使用的体验,2.0版本比之前的1.5在稳定性和外观上有不少改进,原来1.5版本老是死掉重启(周围的人没有这个情况,看来是本人的RPWT…),2.0大大改善。不过一个不小的遗憾是很多插件还没有推出for 2.0的版本,期待中……

 


开始研究社会学

March 27th, 2006

互联网和社会学有什么关系吗?嗯…这是个很复杂的话题,我现在也只有模糊的想法,不过我已经踏出了第一步… :)


3月13日,米胖面世了……

March 14th, 2006

今天,小米胖面世了……

去年6月,我的小外甥(Mr.快快)出生的时候,我姐姐跟我说,只有在看到快快的那一刹那,她才明白了母亲这两个字的含义,只觉得,从今以后,为了这个小人儿,再苦再累都值得,仿佛一下子有了依靠。

我也是到今天才体会到了一点点这种心情,因为我们的网站是去年暑假开始动手的,算起来,也可以说是怀胎7月了(谁?刚才谁说早产儿的?)。那滋味,那是相~~~当~~~的一言难尽啊。特别是辞职创业初期,两个人挤在zjg的 办公室地板上,小心翼翼不敢聊天怕门外的保安发现;特别是初步构思阶段,做什么,怎么做?每每经过几天的冥思苦想,出来一个气吞山河的金点子,上网一查发 现人家早就在做了…这条法则如此灵验以至于让我回想起小时候的怪念头:当你抬头仰望星空,在这个世界上,是不是一定还有一个人,也在做着跟你一模一样 的事情,想着相同的问题?

当然我没有继续追问下去而开始研究哲学,我开始研究社会学了。说实话,我对现在的网络潮流不是很懂,我的眼睛始终盯着我身边的人。每次去食堂的路 上,我都会盯着身边的陌生人(特别是陌生PPMM),问自己:他们在想什么?他们喜欢什么?他们是怎么组织自己的生活,怎么和他们的朋友联系?我开始回忆 起马克思老师的英明论断(在此感谢戴文彪老师,虽然他让我挂了两次…),“人的根本属性,是社会性。”多好的一句话啊!什么是社会性?我觉得现在的六 度理论,蝴蝶理论,长尾理论,xx理论,blog,rss,它们的本质都是社会性在互联网领域的体现。人类的基本需求和社会的基本结构一直没变,变的是满 足这些需 求的方式和程度、怎样构建一个映射真实的社会性的互联网?怎样让互联网成为他们组织生活的一部分?如果从用户的视角出发,我认为web1.0是信息的收集 和发布,接下去是信息的挖掘和重组,web2.0是“关系”的挖掘和重组:人和人的关系,人和事物的关系,事物和事物的关系…

思考的结果就是米胖。我们在设计初期,根本不知道flickr43places豆瓣等网站,只不过后来基本架构定了,慢慢的才知道有这些网站,也吸取了一些东西,当然,我个人是非常bs抄袭的,因此在flickr豆瓣已经深得我喜爱的同时,我还要尽力去摆脱他们,努力有所创新,这不能不说是另一个痛苦。

最近几天,我们买了服务器,找了托管机房,这一切让米胖现实了起来,“成功?我才刚上路呢…”

呵呵,杂七杂八写了一堆,只因今天对我们是个大日子,今天,米胖出生了。

对了,给大家介绍一下米胖
米胖是一个以地方为主题的社区。这里有世界各地的照片、故事和朋友。你可以分享你的家乡和你去过的地方,找到你想去的地方,并认识老乡和志同道合的朋友。